Working Memory and Learning

Gaelle Njonkou, PharmD

Pharmacy Resident

Holy Cross Health

What is the working memory? The working memory is the mental ability to process, store, retain, and apply information¹, therefore a process for higher-order cognition in connection to both short-term and long-term memory processes. There are two different types of working memories: the auditory memory, which consists of processing information presented orally, then storing and retrieving it when necessary; and the spatial memory where we retain observed information¹. For example, when students are taught new equations or physics concepts, they need to remember the related basic formulas in order to identify what operations to use to solve a specific problem. The concept of spatial memory also applies to pharmacy students as they learn pharmacy calculations and pharmacokinetics of vancomycin or aminoglycosides, which are extensively used in practice to provide appropriate doses to patients. The part of the brain related to the working memory is also responsible for focus and concentration. The working memory is therefore key for remembering information, attention, creativity, and learning.  Moreover, the auditory memory and visual-spatial memory are associated to attention functions of the brain, which helps us navigate from one object to another or update the working memory, to reach targeted goals.² As a result, the working memory allows us to navigate from one concept to another, combine previously acquired knowledge, and comprehend complex tasks, including making clinical decisions. Understanding basic memory processes could enlighten instructors, as they guide their students at all stages of development and education, including health professional schools.

Students or learners are provided with information, which they store and retrieve to conduct tasks; however, students are different and might require an individualized approach to learn complex tasks. Research has found that training the working memory could ameliorate learning and education.³ Historical evolution and understanding of the working memory and learning have found that information should first exist in the working memory in an appropriate form in order to subsequently enter the long-term memory for retrieval at a later time.³ Sometimes the suitable form is modality-specific. For instance, Baddeley, Papagno, and Vallar investigated how a patient with minimal verbal short-term memory span could thrive in most ways and demonstrate average learning competencies.^3,4   They concluded she exhibited a selective deficit and could not learn new vocabularies, which emphasizes variances in word-learning capabilities in children and adults.³ The differences in learning and memory abilities should be accentuated in pharmacy education in order to prepare students to become well-rounded pharmacists and effectively care for every patient they encounter. In addition, instructors, including in pharmacy, could adjust their teaching styles based on the students’ backgrounds and educational levels in order for them to retain and be able to apply lessons learned. Educational theories applied in pharmacy schools should possibly be designed using what we know about the working memory.  

The working memory has been found to be instrumental for scholastic achievements and cognitive functioning in general.^{2, 5}Accurate identification of differences in working memory capacity between individuals could positively impact learning. Memory and attention capacities represent the aptitude to retain goal-relevant information in primary memory and to retrieve the information from the secondary memory, which is essential in complex span tasks (CSTs) where attention must progress between mental representations and recall of information.⁵After completing these tasks, information might be quickly forgotten. For example, pharmacy students will learn about pharmacokinetics and remember all the equations in order to pass an exam, possibly retain these concepts, and apply them in practice as externs on rotations and pharmacists in the future. CSTs necessitate storage of the information of a simple span task, such as remembering a list of words in order, in addition to processing the targeted task. ⁵

Research has found that CST performance is correlated to reading comprehension, cognitive ability, fluid intelligence, and ability to execute tasks necessitating attention control.⁵ Therefore, CSTs could be instrumental to assess capabilities of our working memory. In addition, intelligence and working memory could be further elaborated through associative fluency, divergent thinking idea generation, and convergent thinking (idea analysis). ⁶ Divergent thinking, which is the ability to generate ideas or a vast range of solutions to a problem could be beneficial to assess creativity or even solve problems. Studies have associated performance on divergent thinking tests to real-life creative behaviors and different creativity indicators at the elementary, junior high school, undergraduate, and graduate levels. ⁷ As a result, the utilization of divergent thinking by learners to generate ideas or find solutions emphasizes creative thinking and a progression toward convergent thinking to streamline the thought process and  “think outside of the box” in order to attain an appropriate solution. For example, pharmacy students participate in various national competitions, such as the Business Plan Competition, during which they design a business plan for a novel and potential pharmacy establishment. In addition, associative processing could then constitute a bridge between divergent thinking and convergent thinking by accessing remotely related ideas to create an effective solution to a problem or complete a task, such as utilizing information presented in a patient case to identify patient-specific therapeutic plans using lectures provided in class and/or identifying guidelines and relevant literature.

The working memory dictates the synchronous storage and processing of information during activities, such as the acquisition of knowledge, reading comprehension, and problem solving, as well as prevailing over distractions and balancing attention. These concepts all apply to learners at different stages; and efficiency in using our working memory could depend on age, experiences, educational levels, and cognitive abilities. Moreover, individuals with high working memory capacity have an advanced probability to succeed in developing novel approaches and responding to creative thinking tasks efficiently ⁷, expanding to critical learning and problem-solving. As a result, having a baseline understanding of the working memory and processes of learning could help instructors improve and tailor their teaching styles to their audience. Health professional students, including pharmacy students, are encouraged and taught to provide a holistic care to patients, including assessing health literacy and cognitive abilities when necessary.

References

1.      Morin, A. (2008). 5 Ways Kids Use Working Memory to Learn. Retrieved September 2018, from https://www.understood.org/en/learning-attention-issues/child-learning-disabilities/executive-functioning-issues/5-ways-kids-use-working-memory-to-learn

2.      Gade, M., Zoelch, C., & Seitz-Stein, K. (2017). Training of Visual-Spatial Working Memory in Preschool Children. Advances in Cognitive Psychology, 13(2), 177–187. http://doi.org/10.5709/acp-0217-7

3.      Cowan, N. (2013). Working Memory Underpins Cognitive Development, Learning, and Education. Educational Psychology Review, 26(2), 197-223. doi:10.1007/s10648-013-9246-y

4.      Baddeley, A., Papagno, C., & Vallar, G. (1988). When long-term learning depends on short-term storage. Journal of Memory and Language, 27(5), 586-595. doi:10.1016/0749-596x(88)90028-9

5.      Redick, T. S, et al. (2012). Measuring Working Memory Capacity With Automated Complex Span Tasks. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 28(3), 164-171. doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000123

6.      F. (2017, February 06). Divergent vs. Convergent Thinking: How to Strike a Balance. Retrieved September 2018, from https://www.extension.harvard.edu/professional-development/blog/divergent-vs-convergent-thinking-how-strike-balance

7.      Lee, C. S., & Therriault, D. J. (2013). The cognitive underpinnings of creative thought: A latent variable analysis exploring the roles of intelligence and working memory in three creative thinking processes. Intelligence, 41(5), 306-320. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.04.008

8.      K. (2017, May). Balance the Human-Computer Partnership to Enhance Creativity - Hot Topic. Retrieved September 2018, from https://www.knowledgebrief.com/hot-topic/balance-the-human-computer-partnership-to-enhance-creativity